Religious Freedom in Israel: A Fundamental Guarantee
Israel Funds Mosques, Korans; Protects Holy Sites for All
As a country in the Middle East committed to the free practice of religion for all, regardless of religious affiliation, Israel stands as an oasis of religious freedom in the Middle East. The Israeli government supports religious services for communities of all faiths. That includes funding Korans and the operating costs for more than 100 mosques [1] as well as the salaries of Muslim religious leaders; serving as a safe haven for minorities persecuted in surrounding countries; allowing citizens of any religion to hold political office; and paying for the upkeep of holy sites for all religions.
Israel’s Declaration of Independence: A Mandate for Religious Freedom
Israel’s Declaration of Independence, issued in 1948, describes the country as a Jewish state but clearly extends religious freedoms to all of its inhabitants by stating: the State of Israel “will ensure complete equality of social and political rights to all its inhabitants irrespective of religion, race or sex; it will guarantee freedom of religion, conscience, language, education and culture; it will safeguard the Holy Places of all religions.†[2]
As a state that comprises people of many ethnicities and religious backgrounds, Israel encourages minorities to take an active role in politics and government. All Israeli citizens enjoy the right to vote and can run for political office, including the presidency. [3]
Every person in Israel enjoys freedom of conscience, of belief, of religion, and of worship. This freedom is guaranteed to every person in every enlightened, democratic regime, and therefore it is guaranteed to every person in Israel. It is one of the fundamental principles upon which the State of Israel is based.
-Moshe Landau, Former Israeli Supreme Court Justice [4]
Since the reunification of Jerusalem in 1967, Israel has granted access to holy sites of all faiths and has restored and rebuilt Christian, Jewish and Muslim holy sites. [5]
In 1992, the Knesset, or Israeli Parliament, passed the Basic Law on Human Dignity and Liberty, which codified civil and human rights into law. [6] Although the Basic Law on Human Dignity and Liberty refers to Israel as a “Jewish and democratic state,†[7] Israel does not have an official religion. [8] Each of the country’s largest religious communities – Christian, Druze, Jewish, Muslim – has jurisdiction over its internal affairs, religious affairs and personal status including marriage, divorce and burial. [9] All religious family courts are recognized as autonomous and paid for by the Israeli government. [10]
Religious Groups in Israel
Israel is comprised of people who practice a variety of faiths, and all enjoy full rights to do so without fear of persecution or unequal treatment under the law. Israel recognizes five religions – Judaism, Islam, Christianity, Druze and Bahá’Ã. [11]
As of Dec. 31, 2006, the religious demographics of Israel are as follows:
Jews and “Others†80.1 percent:*
Jews: 76 percent
Non-Arab Christians: .4 percent
Not classified by religion: 3.9 percent
Arabs 19.7 percent:*
Muslim: 16.4 percent
Christian: 1.7 percent
Druze: 1.6 percent [12]
*The percentage does not add up to 100
Jews in Israel:
Israel is the only country in the world where the majority of the citizens are Jewish. [13] The Jewish spectrum in Israel ranges from those who regard themselves as secular, or non-observant, to those who are ultra-Orthodox, or observant. [14] Jerusalem is the holiest city in Judaism and is home to many of the religion’s sacred sites including the Western Wall, the Temple Mount and the Tomb of David. [15]
Muslims in Israel:
Israel’s Muslim population consists primarily of about 1.4 million Sunni Arabs, who mostly live in northern Israel. [16] Circassians and Bedouins are members of Israel’s Muslim sector. [17] The Temple Mount in Jerusalem, which contains the Dome of the Rock and the Al-Aqsa Mosque, is Islam’s third-holiest site. [18] Other notable sites include the El-Jazzar mosque in Acre and the Tomb of the Patriarchs in Hebron in the West Bank, referred to historically as Judea and Samaria, which could become part of a future Palestinian state. [19] [20] Israel funds more than 100 mosques and pays the salaries of their imams (religious leaders). In addition, Israel purchases the Korans used in mosques. [21] The Israeli government also funds Arab schools as well as numerous Islamic schools and colleges. [22] Arab-operated schools teach Islamic studies and Arabic, in addition to the Israel Ministry of Education’s general curriculum. [23]
Christians in Israel:
Israel is home to the holiest sites in Christianity, including the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, where Jesus was crucified and resurrected; [24] the Basilica of Annunciation in the Galilee town of Nazareth, in northern Israel; the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem, in the West Bank; the Room of the Last Supper and the Via Dolorosa in Jerusalem; the Sea of Galilee in northern Israel; and the Mount of Olives in Jerusalem, revered in Judaism, Islam and Christianity. [25]
Israel officially recognizes 10 Christian denominations for the purposes of personal status such as marriage and divorce: Greek Orthodox, Greek Catholic, Roman Catholic, Armenian Orthodox, Armenian Catholic, Maronite, Syrian Orthodox, Syrian Catholic, Chaldean Catholic and (Anglican) Episcopal. [26] The majority of Christians in Israel are Arabs belonging to the Greek Catholic, Greek Orthodox and Roman Catholic churches. [27]
Druze in Israel:
The Druze community has a special standing in Israel for its contribution to the country’s defense. Israeli Druze are required to serve in the IDF and have held prominent positions in politics, the military and public office. [28] Israel’s Druze are loyal to the country and often place their flag alongside Israel’s. [29] Most of the country’s 113,000 Druze live in 22 villages in northern Israel; Daliyat el-Carmel on Mount Carmel, southeast of Haifa, is the most populous Druze village with 13,000 residents. [30] The tomb of Jethro, father-in-law of Moses, is one of the most important sites in the Druze faith. Another important Druze religious place, the tomb of Nebi Shu’eib, sits in the Galilee near the Horns of Hittin – a twin mountain near Tiberias and the site of a major battle of the Crusades. [31]
Bahá’à in Israel:
Israel serves as a haven for the Bahá’Ã, a religious minority that originated in Persia and whose adherents have been routinely persecuted under the Islamic Shia government in Iran. [32] There are about six million Bahá’Ãs in the world, residing in more than 200 countries and territories. [33] Roughly 700 to 800 [34] Bahá’à volunteers from 60 countries reside near the Bahá’à World Centre, in the northern port city of Haifa, where they administer the internal and international affairs of the Bahá’à world community. The staff cares for the Bahá’à holy sites in Israel including BahjÃ, where the founder of the Bahá’à Faith, Bahá’u’lláh, died in Acre in northern Israel. [35]
Israeli Protection of All Holy Sites
Israel allows people of all faiths access to the country’s myriad holy sites. In fact, Israeli law mandates that everyone, regardless of religious affiliation, has the right to visit all holy places within Israel.
Anyone who attempts to hinder this right is subject to criminal prosecution and imprisonment for as many as five years. [36] The Protection of Holy Places Law of 1967 also states that anyone who vandalizes a holy site could suffer legal consequences. The law states: “Whoever does anything that is likely to violate the freedom of access of the members of the various religions to the places sacred to them is liable to imprisonment for a term of five years.†[37]
Exceptions have been made during Jewish holidays and after terrorist attacks when the government is forced to impose restrictions because of security threats. [38]
By contrast, between 1949 and 1967, when Jordan controlled the holy sites, all Israelis were forbidden from entering East Jerusalem, including the Old City. [39] The Old City is home to the Western Wall, the most sacred site in Judaism; the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, where Christ is believed to have been buried; [40] and the Temple Mount (Haram al-Sharif in Arabic), the third-holiest site in Islam as well as the site of the first and second Jewish temples.
Under Jordanian rule, holy sites and Jewish cemeteries within East Jerusalem were desecrated. Upon gaining control of all of Jerusalem in 1967, Israel immediately opened the area to people of all faiths so that they would be free to worship at their respective holy sites without threat of violence or persecution. Israel made this clear in its first radio announcement after capturing East Jerusalem: [41]
“This morning, the Israel Defense Forces liberated Jerusalem. We have united Jerusalem, the divided capital of Israel. We have returned to the holiest of our holy places, never to part from it again. To our Arab neighbors we extend, also at this hour – and with added emphasis at this hour – our hand in peace. And to our Christian and Muslim fellow citizens, we solemnly promise full religious freedom and rights. We did not come to Jerusalem for the sake of other peoples’ holy places, and not to interfere with the adherents of other faiths, but in order to safeguard its entirety, and to live there together with others, in unity.”
–Former Israeli Defense Minister Moshe Dayan, June 7, 1967 [42]
Integrating Israel’s Diversity
The Israeli government has taken broad steps to incorporate people of all religious affiliations and nationalities into the country’s decision-making bodies. Religious minorities in Israel are also represented in private and non-governmental sectors. For example:
Non-Jews have held seats in every Knesset since Israel’s founding. [43] In the very first Knesset in 1949, an Arab-led party — The Democratic List of Nazareth — won two seats. The members were Amin-Salim Jarjora and Seif E-Din E-Zoubi; [44]
Israeli Druze Saleh Tarif became Israel’s first non-Jewish government minister in March 2001; [45]
In 2005, the Israeli government appointed Oscar Abu-Razek, a Muslim, as director general of the Ministry of Interior; Abu-Razek became the most senior Arab in a government ministry; [46]
Jamal Hakrush, a Muslim, was promoted to assistant commander by the National Police in December 2006, making him the highest-ranking Israeli-Arab Muslim police officer since Israel’s founding; [47]
Raleb Majadle, a member of Israel’s Labor Party, became the country’s first Arab-Muslim Cabinet member in January 2007; [48]
For the first time since the establishment of Israel, an Arab Christian, Salim Joubran, was appointed in 2004 as a permanent justice of the Supreme Court; [49]
In June 2000, Knesset member Rabbi Michael Melchior founded the Citizens Accord Forum for Jews and Arabs in Israel, a private non-governmental organization calling for economic, social and civic equality for Israel’s Jews and Arabs; [50]
The number of non-Jewish directors on the boards of state-owned companies increased from 5.5 percent in 2002 to 10 percent in 2005. Arabs occupy approximately 10 percent of the board seats of 105 state-run companies; [51]
In June 2006, the 35th World Zionist Congress passed a resolution requiring the Jewish Agency to include Israeli-Arab communities in its development plans for the country. [52] Previously, the Jewish Agency had not been active in the Arab and Druze communities; [53]
During Israel’s defensive war against Iran-backed Hezbollah in 2006, the Jewish Agency provided humanitarian aid to Muslim and Christian children in the Galilee. The northern Israeli region suffered the greatest number of hits by Hezbollah-launched rockets. The Agency continued its efforts after the war by helping to rebuild Israeli-Arab communities in northern Israel; [54]
Many non-governmental organizations in Israel, including the Gesher Foundation and Meitarim, are dedicated to encouraging interfaith dialogue and coexistence between Jews and Arabs; [55]
The Israel Airports Authority plans to erect a Muslim prayer room at Ben-Gurion International Airport to accommodate Muslim passengers; [56]
In September 2003, Samaher Zaina became the first female principal of an Arab secondary school. [57]
Religious Oppression by Israel’s Neighbors
In contrast to the institutionalized standards of tolerance in Israeli government and society, many of Israel’s neighbors continue to restrict the right of various peoples to practice their religion.
Palestinian Areas:
In contrast to the respect Israel demonstrates for Muslim holy sites, Palestinians in the Hamas-controlled Gaza Strip persecute non-Muslims, desecrating Jewish and Christian sites and oppressing Christian minorities. [58] The roughly 3,000 Christians who live in Gaza face constant persecution by Palestinian extremists. Christians have been killed, and their schools, churches and recreational centers are routinely attacked. [59] Iran-backed Hamas seized control of Gaza during a bloody coup in June 2007. [60]
Before Israel withdrew from all of Gaza in 2005 in hopes of paving the way for an independent Palestinian state, Jews living there required military escorts to travel outside their heavily guarded neighborhoods. [61] Jews in Gaza were the targets of thousands of terrorist attacks, including one that killed 34-year-old Tali Hatuel and her four daughters, all under the age of 12. [62]
As Israel evacuated Gaza, Palestinians vandalized and burned at least four synagogues. [63] Within days, Palestinians also destroyed high-tech greenhouses that had been donated to them to help them with their livelihoods. [64]
Just before the 2005 withdrawal, Israeli Jews uprooted and transferred all of the graves in a Jewish cemetery in Gaza to avoid desecration of the graves. [65] In the two-and-a-half years since the evacuation, Iran-backed terrorists in Gaza, whose extremist ideology includes a stated goal to destroy Israel, [66] have used the area to fire more than 4,500 rockets and mortars into Israeli towns. [67]
Iran: The official religion of Iran is Islam and the constitution states that all laws and regulations must be based on Islamic criteria. Christians, Jews and Zoroastrians are considered “protected†minorities, however, they still face discrimination and minorities have reported imprisonment, harassment and intimidation. [68] Zoroastrianism, founded in Persia more than 3,500 years ago, is one of the world’s oldest monotheistic religions and was once the official religion of Persia. [69] The Zoroastrian concept of heaven, hell and resurrection influenced Christianity and Islam. [70] Members of the Bahá’à faith are targeted more than any other minority and have reported systematic persecution, arbitrary arrests, expulsions from universities and confiscation of property. [71]
Saudi Arabia: Islam is the official religion and the legal system is based on Islamic law (Sharia). Religious freedom is virtually non-existent in Saudi Arabia, which provides no legal protection or recognition of freedom of religion to non-Muslims. [72] Non-Muslims cannot be citizens and although private worship for all religious groups is theoretically permitted, [73] there is no tolerance for public practice of religions other than Islam. [74] Christians have been arrested for worshipping in private [75] and public displays of religious symbols such as the crucifix, the Star of David and Christian Bibles are prohibited. [76] As of August 2007, the Saudi Arabian Airlines Web site stated, “A number of items are not allowed to be brought into the kingdom due to religious reasons and local regulations,†and “Items and articles belonging to religions other than Islam are also prohibited. These may include Bibles, crucifixes, statues, carvings, items with religious symbols such as the Star of David, and others.” The statement has since been removed from the airline’s Web site. [77]
Syria: There is no official state religion, however Islamic jurisprudence is the main source of legislation [78] and the legal system is based on Ottoman, French and Sharia (Islamic) laws. [79] The constitution provides for freedom of religion, but there are restrictions to this right – for example, only a Muslim is permitted to be president. Additionally, the government bans Jehovah’s Witnesses and its members must conduct its activities discreetly to avoid attracting government attention. The government mandates religious education in schools for all religious groups, however, only instruction on Islam and Christianity is provided. [80]
Lebanon: The Lebanese constitution allows for freedom of religion and equality for all of its citizens is guaranteed. However, the constitution establishes a balance of power between the major religious groups – Christians and Muslims and political positions are limited to specific groups within those religions. For example, the president must be a Maronite Christian; only a Sunni Muslim can be prime minister; and the post of parliament speaker is reserved for a Shia Muslim. [81] Bahá’Ãs, Buddhists, Hindus and some Protestant Christian groups are not officially recognized by the government and therefore cannot hold certain government positions. However, members of these religious groups can run for office under a different religious sect. [82]
Expert Sources (U.S. and Israel)
United States:
Dr. Mitchell Bard, Executive Director, American-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise
Tel.: 301-565-3918 (Maryland)
E-mail: mgbard@aol.com
Web Site: www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org
Michael Cromartie, Vice President, Ethics and Public Policy Center (EPPC)
Tel.: 202-682-1200 (office) (Washington, D.C.)
E-mail: crom@eppc.org
Web Site: http://www.eppc.org/scholars/scholarID.10/scholar.asp
Ismail M. Khaldi, Deputy Consul General, Pacific Northwest Region, Consulate General of Israel
Tel.: 415-844-7517 (California)
E-mail: consul@sanfrancisco.mfa.gov.il or info@ishmaelkhaldi.com
Web site: http://www.ishmaelkhaldi.com
Joseph Loconte, Senior Fellow, Ethics and Public Policy Center
E-mail: joeloconte@comcast.net
Web site: http://www.eppc.org/scholars/scholarID.78/scholar.asp
Faith McDonnell, Director, Religious Liberty Programs and the Church Alliance for a New Sudan, The Institute on Religion & Democracy (Washington, D.C.)
Tel.: 202-682-4131 (office)
E-mail: fmcdonnell@theIRD.org
Web site: http://www.theird.org/NETCOMMUNITY/Page.aspx?pid=212&srcid=198
Ambassador Reda Mansour, Consul General of Israel to the Southeast Consulate General of Israel
Tel.: 404-487-6582 (Georgia)
E-mail: consul.sec@atlanta.mfa.gov.il
Web site: http://atlanta.mfa.gov.il
Jennifer Laszlo Mizrahi, Founder and President, The Israel Project
Tel.: 202-857-6644 (office) (Washington, D.C.)
E-mail: jenniferm@theisraelproject.org
Web site: www.theisraelproject.org
Prof. Daphne Tsimhoni, Rosenbloom Visiting Scholar in Israel Studies; The Borns Jewish Studies Program Indiana University (U.S.)
Technion – Israel Institute of Technology, Department of Humanities and Arts; The Truman Research Institute for the Advancement of Peace at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem (Israel)
Tel.: 812-855-8923 (office) (through May – Indiana)
E-mail: dtsimhon@indiana.edu (through May); dtsimhon@actcom.co.il, daphnets@tx.technion.ac.il
Israel:
Prof. Menachem Friedman, Bar-Ilan University, Department of Sociology and Anthropology
Tel.: 972-3-531-8624 (office)
E-mail: mfriedma@mail.biu.ac.il
Mark Regev, Foreign Press Adviser, Prime Minister’s Office
Tel.: 972-2-670-5555 (office); 972-2-670-5354 (direct)
Web site: http://www.pmo.gov.il/PMOEng
Prof. Yedidia Stern, Bar-Ilan University, Faculty of Law
Tel.: 972-3-531-8414 (office direct)
E-mail: sternyz@mail.biu.ac.il
Footnotes
[1] Interview with Ambassador Reda Mansour, consul general to the southeastern U.S., March 5, 2008
[2] “Declaration of the Establishment of the State of Israel,†Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs Web site, May 14, 1948, http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Peace%20Process/Guide%20to%20the
%20Peace%20Process/Declaration%20of%20Establishm
ent%20of%20State%20of%20Israel
[3] “Did You Know? Religious Diversity in Israel,†Embassy of Israel Web site, http://www.israelemb.org/education/publications/Religious%20Diversity.pdf, accessed Feb. 18, 2008; “Excerpts from the Basic Law: The President,†President of the State of Israel Web site, http://www.president.gov.il/defaults/default_en.asp, accessed Feb. 18, 2008
[4] Shetreet, Shimon, “World Conference Against Racism – Durban: Freedom of Religion in Israel,†Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs Web site, Aug. 20, 2001, http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/MFAArchive/2000_2009/20
01/8/Freedom%20of%20Religion%20in%20Israel
[5] “The Status of Jerusalem,†Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs Web site, March 14, 1999, MFA/MFAArchive/1990_1999/1999/3/The+Status+of+Jerusalem.htm” target=_blank>http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/MFAArchive/1990_1999/1999/3/The+Status+of+Jerusalem.htm
[6] “Basic Law-Human Dignity and Liberty,†Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs Web site, March 17, 2002, http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/MFAArchive/1990_1999/1992/3/Basic%20Law-%20Human%20Dignity%20and%20Liberty-
[7] “Basic Law-Human Dignity and Liberty,†Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs Web site, March 17, 2002, http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/MFAArchive/1990_1999/1992/3/Basic%
20Law-%20Human%20Dignity%20and%20Liberty-; Shetreet, Prof. Shimon, “Freedom of Religion in Israel,†Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs Web site, Aug. 20, 2001,
http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/MFAArchive/2000_2009/2001/8/Fre
edom%20of%20Religion%20in%20Israel
[8] “Israel,†Encyclopedia Britannica online, http://www.britannica.com/nations/Israel, accessed March 25, 2008; “Israel Education Initiative: Israeli Democracy,†United Jewish Communities Web site, http://www.ujc.org/page.html?ArticleID=33075, accessed March 25, 2008
[9] “Israel and the Occupied Territories: International Religious Freedom Report 2006,†U,S, Department of State Web site, http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71423.htm, accessed Jan. 16, 2008; “Society: Religious Freedom,†Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs Web site, Oct. 1, 2006, http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Facts+About+Israel/People/SOCI
ETY-+Religious+Freedom.htm; Chapin Metz, Helen, “Israel: A Country Study -The Judicial System,†Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1988, http://countrystudies.us/israel/84.htm
[10] Interview with Ambassador Reda Mansour, consul general to the southeastern U.S., March 5, 2008
[11] Shetreet, Prof. Shimon, “Freedom of Religion in Israel,†Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs Web site, Aug. 20, 2001, http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/MFAArchive/2000_2009/200
1/8/Freedom%20of%20Religion%20in%20Israel
[12] “Population – Israel in Figures 2007,†Central Bureau of Statistics, http://www1.cbs.gov.il/publications/isr_in_n07e.pdf, accessed March 18, 2008
[13] “Did You Know? Religious Diversity in Israel†Embassy of Israel, Washington, D.C., http://www.israelemb.org/education/publications/Religious%20Diversity.pdf, accessed March 20, 2008
[14] “Society: Jewish Society,†Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs Web site, Oct. 1, 2006, http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Facts%20About%20Israel/People/SOCIETY-%20Jewish%20Society
[15] Andersson, Hilary, “Praying for a miracle,†BBC News, July 22, 2000, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/846143.stm
[16] “Israeli Arabs – World Conference Against Racism – Durban,†Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs Web site, Aug. 20, 2001, http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/MFAArchive/2000_2009/2001/8/Arab%20Israelis
[17] “Israeli Arabs – World Conference Against Racism – Durban,†Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs Web site, Aug. 20, 2001, http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/MFAArchive/2000_2009/2001/8/Arab%20Israelis; “Society: Minority Communities,†Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs Web site, Oct. 1, 2006, http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Facts%20About%20Israel/People/SOCIETY-%20Minority%20Communities
[18] Kifner, John,â€Ideas & Trends: Summits/Dealing With Jerusalem; The Holiest City, the Toughest Conflict,†New York Times, July 23, 2000, http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9900E4D6143AF930A15754C0A9669C8B63&scp=11&sq=%22third-holiest+site%22&st=nyt
[19] Benn, Aluf, “Olmert’s new offer to Abbas: Agreement of Principles toward Palestinian state,†Haaretz, http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/886042.html, accessed March 24, 2008; “Israel-Palestine Liberation Organization Agreement: 1993,†The Avalon Project at Yale Law School, http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/mideast/isrplo.htm, accessed March 24, 2008
[20] “SOCIETY:Religious Freedom,†Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs Web site, Oct. 1, 2006, http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Facts%20About%20Israel/People/SOCIETY-%20Religious%20Freedom
[21] Interview with Ambassador Reda Mansour, consul general to the southeastern U.S., March 5, 2008
[22] Ibid.
[23] “Did You Know? Religious Diversity in Israel†Embassy of Israel, Washington, D.C., http://www.israelemb.org/education/publications/Religious%20Diversity.pdf, accessed March 20, 2008
[24] “Christian Themes-Church of the Holy Sepulchre,†Israel Ministry of Tourism Web site, http://www.goisrael.com/Tourism_Eng/Tourist+Information/Christi
an+Themes/Details/Church+of+The+Holy+Sepulcher+++chr.htm, accessed March 20, 2008
[25] “Christian Themes-Church of the Holy Sepulchre,†Israel Ministry of Tourism Web site, http://www.goisrael.com/Tourism_Eng/Tourist+Information/Christ
ian+Themes/Details/Church+of+The+Holy+Sepulcher+++chr.htm, accessed March 20, 2008; “Holy Sites of Jerusalem,†ISRAIR Web site,
http://www.israirairlines.com/guide.asp?id=266&menu_id=254, accessed March 20, 2008; “The Basilica of Annunciation,” Israel Ministry of Tourism Web site, http://www.goisrael.com/Tourism_Eng/Tourist+Information/Christian+Themes/Details/The+Basilica+of+Annunciation++chr.htm, accessed March 20, 2008
[26] Eldar, Yishai, “Focus on Israel: The Christian Communities of Israel,†Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs Web site, March 30, 2003, http://www.mfa.gov.il/mfa/facts%20about%20
israel/people/focus%20on%20israel%20-%20the%20christian%20communities%20of%20isr
[27] “SOCIETY: Minority Communities,†Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs Web site, Oct. 1, 2006, http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Facts%20About%20Israel/Peop
le/SOCIETY-%20Minority%20Communities; Eldar, Yishai, “Focus on Israel: The Christian Communities of Israel,†Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs Web site, March 30, 2003, http://www.mfa.gov.il/mfa/facts%20about%20israel/people/focus%20on%20israel%20-%20the%20christian%20communities%20of%20isr
[28] Aridi, Dr. Naim, “Focus on Israel-The Druze in Israel,†Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs Web site, Dec. 23, 2002, http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/MFAArchive/2000_2009/2002/12/Focus%20on%20Israel-%20The%20Druze%20in%20Israel
[29] “Druze Themes-The Druze Faith and Community,†Israel Ministry of Tourism Web site, http://www.goisrael.com/Tourism_Eng/Tourist+Information/Ethnic+Groups/Druze/, accessed March 20, 2008
[30] “Society: Minority Communities,†Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs Web site, Oct. 1, 2006, http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Facts%20About%20Israel/People/SOCIETY-%20Minority%20Communities; “Did You Know? Religious Diversity in Israel†Embassy of Israel Web site, Washington, D.C., http://www.israelemb.org/education/publications/Religious%20Diversity.pdf, accessed March 20, 2008; “Focus on Israel – The Druze in Israel,†Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs Web site, Dec. 23, 2002, http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/MFAArchive/2000_2009/2002/12/Focus%20on%20Israel-%20The%20Druze%20in%20Israel
[31] “Druze Themes,†Israel Ministry of Tourism Web site, http://www.goisrael.com/Tourism_Eng/Touris
t+Information/Ethnic+Groups/Druze/Nebi+Shu’eib’s+Tomb.htm, accessed March 20, 2008; Dann, Moshe, “Roots of Jewish Renewal – Crisis and Creativity in Jewish History,†Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs Web site, Jan. 7, 1999, http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/MFAArchive/1990_1999/1999/1/Moshe+Dann+-+Roots+of+Jewish+Renewal+-+Crisis+and.htm?DisplayMode=print; “Tourism & Travel,†Austria-Israel Chamber of Commerce Web site, http://www.aicc.org.au/pages.cfm?id=49, accessed March 24, 2008
[32] “What We Believe,†The Official Web site of the Bahá’is of the United States, http://www.bahai.us/about-bahai, accessed Feb. 18, 2008; “Persecution of the Bahá’is in Iran,†The Official Web site of the Bahá’is of the United States, http://www.bahai.us/persecution-bahais-iran, accessed Feb. 18, 2008
[33] Interview with Ellen Price, Assistant Director, National Spiritual Assembly’s Office of Communications, March 20, 2008; “What is the Bahá’i Faith?â€, The Bahá’is-The International Web site of the Bahá’i Faith, http://www.bahai.org/faq/facts/bahai_faith, accessed March 19, 2008
[34] Interview with Ellen Price, Assistant Director, National Spiritual Assembly’s Office of Communications, March 20, 2008
[35] “The Bahá’à World Centre: Focal Point for a Global Community,†Bahá’à Topics: An Information Resource of the Bahá’à International Community Web site, http://info.bahai.org/article-1-6-0-5.html, accessed Feb. 1, 2008
[36] “General Assembly, Forty-Third Session, Item 77: Report of the Special Committee to Investigate Israeli Practices Affecting the Human Rights of the Population of the Occupied Territories,†United Nations – General Assembly Security Council, April 19, 1988, http://domino.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/f45643a78fcba71985
2560f6005987ad/19e1c7957dd5a925052567f3006e9f93!OpenDocument; “Protection of Holy Places Law, 1967,†Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs Web site, June 30, 1998, http://www.israel-mfa.gov.il/MFA/Peace%20Process/Guide%20to%20the%20Peace%20Process/Protection%20of%20Holy%20Places%20Law
[37] “General Assembly, Forty-Third Session, Item 77: Report of the Special Committee to Investigate Israeli Practices Affecting the Human Rights of the Population of the Occupied Territories,†United Nations – General Assembly Security Council, April 19, 1988, http://domino.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/f45643a78fcba719852560f6005
987ad/19e1c7957dd5a925052567f3006e9f93!OpenDocument; “Protection of Holy Places Law, 1967,†Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs Web site, June 30, 1998, http://www.israel-mfa.gov.il/MFA/Peace%20Process/Guide%20to%20the%20Peace%20Process/Protection%20of%20Holy%20Places%20Law
[38] “Iran: International Religious Freedom Report 2007,†U.S. Department of State Web site, accessed Jan. 16, 2008, http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90210.htm
[39] Martin Gilbert, Jerusalem in the Twentieth Century (Pilmico 1996), p254.
[40] Bolen, Todd, “Church of the Holy Sepulcher,†BiblePlaces.com, http://www.bibleplaces.com/holysepulcher.htm, accessed Feb. 25, 2008
[41] Gilbert, Martin, Jerusalem in the Twentieth Century (Pilmico1996), p.254
[42] “11 Statement at the Western Wall by Defense Minister Dayan,†Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs Web site, June 7,1967, http://www.israelmfa.gov.il/MFA/Foreign+Relations/Israels+Foreign+Relations+since+1947/1947-1974/11+Statement+at+the+Western+Wall+by+Defence+Minist.htm
[43] Stendel, Ori, “The Arabs in Israel,†1996, http://books.google.com/books?i
d=t7Ao8dYsCskC&pg=PA202&lpg=PA202&dq=%22arabs+in+the+knesset%22&source=web&ots=4Q1n1PtlFV&sig=m-EieQFWClDt38F-nzK9HWlgVh4&hl=en#PPA206,M1, pg. 202; “Factional and Government Make-Up of the First Knesset,†The Knesset Web site, http://www.knesset.gov.il/history/eng/eng_hist1_s.htm, accessed March 20, 2008; “Seif E-Din E-Zoubi,†The Knesset Web site, http://www.knesset.gov.il/mk/eng/mk_eng.asp?mk_individual_id_t=251, accessed March 20, 2008
[44] “Nazareth Democratic Party,†The Knesset Web site, http://www.knesset.gov.il/faction/eng/FactionPage_eng.asp?PG=87, accessed March 20, 2008
[45] “Saleh Tarif, MK,†Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs Web site, Jan. 29, 2002, http://mfa.gov.il/MFA/MFAArchive/2000_2009/2002/1/Saleh%20Tarif
[46] “At the weekly Cabinet meeting 21.03.05,†Prime Minister’s Office Web site, March 21, 2005, http://www.pmo.gov.il/PMOEng/Archive/Cabinet/2005/03/cabmet2103.htm; “Israel and the Occupied Territories: International Religious Freedom Report 2006,†U.S. Department of State Web site, accessed Feb. 19, 2008, http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71423.htm
[47] “Israel and the Occupied Territories: International Religious Freedom Report 2007,†U.S. Department of State Web site, accessed Jan. 18, 2008, http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90212.htm
[48] “First Arab joins Israeli cabinet,†BBC News, Jan. 28, 2007, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6307673.stm ; Mitnick, Joshua,“Israel Welcomes First Muslim Minister,†The Christian Science Monitor, Feb. 1, 2007, http://www.csmonitor.com/2007/0201/p07s02-wome.html
[49] Cashman, Greer Fay, “It was Joubran’s Day,†The Jerusalem Post, May 25, 2004; Myre, Greg,“World Briefing – Middle East: Israel: Supreme Court Gains First Arab,†The New York Times, May 7, 2004, http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D06EEDD173CF934A35756C0A9629C8B63
[50] Melchior, Michael, “Message from Founder,†Citizens Accord Forum Between Jews and Arabs in Israel, Accessed Jan. 15, 2008, http://www.caf.org.il/Base.asp?Sec=358
[51] “Israel and the Occupied Territories: International Religious Freedom Report 2007,†U.S. Department of State Web site, accessed Jan. 18, 2008, http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90212.htm
[52] “Israel and Occupied Territories: International Religious Freedom Report 2006 ,†U.S. Department of State, Sept. 15 2006, http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71423.htm
[53] “Israel and the Occupied Territories: International Religious Freedom Report 2007,†U.S. Department of State Web site, accessed Jan. 18, 2008, http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90212.htm
[54] Ibid.
[55] Ibid.
[56] Senyor, Eli, “Muslim prayer room set up at Ben-Gurion Airport,†Ynetnews.com, Dec. 21, 2006, http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3342862,00.html
[57] Bletter, Diana, “A woman of integrity,†The Jerusalem Post, Feb. 10, 2008, http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?c=JPArticle&cid=1202625819762&pagename=JPost%2FJPArticle%2FShowFull
[58] “Middle East Christians: Gaza pastor,†BBC News, Dec. 21, 2005, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4514822.stm
[59] Sudilovsky, Judith, “Christians say conditions in Gaza worsen for them, moderate Muslims,†Catholic News Service, Feb. 19, 2008, http://www.catholicnews.com/data/stories/cns/0800959.htm; “Gaza tiny Christian community prays for peace in Greek Orthodox Christmas mass,†Associated Press, Jan. 7, 2008, http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2008/01/07/africa/ME-GEN-Gaza-Orthodox-Christmas.php; Silverman, Erica, “Gaza Baptists targeted by extremists,†Feb. 4, 2008, http://www.nydailynews.com/news/us_world/2008/02/04/2008-02-04_gaza_baptists_targeted_by_extremists-2.html; “Gunmen Damage Christian School in Gaza, Beat, Shoot Guards,†Middle East Media Research Institute, Feb. 22, 2008, http://www.thememriblog.org/blog_personal/en/5636.htm
[60] “Hamas Coup in Gaza, †The International Institute for Strategic Studies Web site, June 2007, http://www.iiss.org/publications/strategic-comments/past-issues/v
olume-13—2007/volume-13–issue-5–june-2007/hamas-coup-in-gaza; “Hamas takes full control of Gaza,†BBC, June 15, 2007, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6755299.stm
[61] “Bush praises Sharon’s pullout proposal,†CNN, April 15, 2004, http://www.cnn.com/2004/WORLD/meast/04/14/bush.sharon/index.html; Staff and agencies,†Gaza Strip bomb targets school bus,†The Guardian, Nov. 20, 2000, http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2000/nov/20/israel1; Klein, Aaron, “Will Jews take cash to leave West Bank,†WorldNetDaily, Jan. 24, 2006, http://www.wnd.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=48468
[62] “2005 Terrorism Review,†Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs Web site, Jan. 2, 2006, http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Terrorism-+Obstacle+to+Peace/Terrorism+and+Islamic+Fundamentalism-/2005+Terrorism+Review.htm; “Tali Hatuel, Hila, Hadar, Roni and Merav,†Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs Web site, May 2, 2004, http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Terrorism-+Obstacle+to+Peace/Memorial/2004/Tali+Hatuel.htm; Staff and agencies, “Gaza Strip bomb targets school bus,†The Guardian, Nov. 20, 2000, http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2000/nov/20/israel1
[63] Waked, Ali, “Shalom slams ‘barbaric act’,†Ynetnews.com, Sept. 12, 2005, http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3140767,00.html
[64] “Looters strip Gaza greenhouses,†Associated Press via MSNBC.com, Sept. 13, 2005, http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/9331863/
[65] Harnden, Toby, “Gaza’s settlers prepare to exhume their dead before the withdrawal,†The Telegraph (UK), March 12, 2005, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2005/03/13/wmid13.xml
[66] “Hamas Covenant 1988: The Covenant of the Islamic Resistance Movement,†The Avalon Project at Yale Law School, Aug. 18, 1988, http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/mideast/hamas.htm
[67] IDF Spokesman’s Unit, Jan. 2, 2008 and Feb. 25, 2008
[68] “Iran: International Religious Freedom Report 2007 ,†U.S. Department of State Web site, http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90210.htm, accessed Jan. 16, 2008
[69] “Religion & Ethics – Zoroastrianism,†BBC News, http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/zoroastrian/, accessed March 20, 2008; “Religion & Ethics – Zoroastrianism – Zoroastrianism at a glance,†BBC News, http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/zoroastrian/ataglance/glance.shtml, accessed March 20, 2008
[70] “In pictures: Zoroastrians in Iran,†BBC News, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/spl/hi/picture_gallery/05/middle_east_zoroastrians_in_iran/html/1.stm, accessed March 20, 2008
[71] “Iran: International Religious Freedom Report 2007 ,†U.S. Department of State Web site, http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90210.htm, accessed Jan. 16, 2008
[72] “Saudi Arabia: International Religious Freedom Report 2007,†U.S. Department of State Web site, http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90220.htm, accessed Feb. 23, 2008
[73] Ibid.
[74] Ibid.
[75] Ibid.
[76] Freund, Michael, “Saudis might take Bibles from tourists,†The Jerusalem Post, Aug. 8, 2007, http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?pagename=JPost%2FJPArticle%2FShowFull&cid=1186557401034
[77] “Visa & Customs,†Saudi Arabian Airlines Web site, http://www.saudiairlines.com/portal/site/saudiairlines/menuitem.d9a467d070ca6c65173ff63dc8f034a0/?vgnextoid=c9fb9f6412852110VgnVCM1000008c0f430aRCRD, accessed March 23, 2008
[78] “Syria: International Religious Freedom Report 2007,†U.S. Department of State Web site, http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90221.htm, accessed Jan. 16, 2008
[79] “Background Note: Syria,†U.S. Department of State-Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs,†May 2007, http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3580.htm; “Syria’s Role in the Middle East-Government Profile: Syria,†The Online NewsHour, http://www.pbs.org/newshour/indepth_coverage/middle_east/syria/profile.html, accessed March 20, 2008
[80] “Syria: International Religious Freedom Report 2007,†U.S. Department of State Web site, http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90221.htm, accessed Jan. 16, 2008
[81] “Vote on Lebanon president delayed,†BBC News, Dec. 7, 2007, http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/7132486.stm
[82] “Lebanon: International Religious Freedom Report 2007,†U.S. Department of State Web site, http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90215.htm, accessed March 23, 2008
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